Temporomandibular disorders: Current concepts in diagnosis and treatment

References

1. Murphy MK. Temporomandibular disorders: A review of etiology, clinical management, and tissue engineering strategies. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 2013;28(6):e393–414. https://doi.org/10.11607/jomi.te20
   [Google Scholar]
2. McNeill C. History and evolution of TMD concepts. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1997;83(1):51–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1079-2104(97)90091-3
   [Google Scholar]
3. Annapurna Kannan A, Padmanabhan S. Orthodontic diagnosis and management of TMJ – A case report. Sri Ramachandra J Health Sci. 2022;2(2):69–72. https://doi.org/10.25259/srjhs_13_2022
   [Google Scholar]
4. Rawlani SM, Rawlani SS. Manual of Temporomandibular Joint. 1st ed. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd. 2016. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp/books/12727
   [Google Scholar]
5. Magnusson T, Egermark I, Carlsson GE. A longitudinal epidemiologic study of signs and symptoms of temporomandibular disorders from 15 to 35 years of age. J Orofac Pain. 2000;14(4):310–9.
6. Ebrahimi M, Dashti H, Mehrabkhani M, Arghavani M, Daneshvar- Mozafari A. Temporomandibular disorders and related factors in a group of Iranian adolescents: A cross-sectional survey. J Dent Res Dent Clin Dent Prospect. 2011;5(4):123–7. https://doi.org/10.5681/joddd.2011.028
   [Google Scholar]
7. Manfredini D, Piccotti F, Ferronato G, Guarda-Nardini L. Age peaks of different RDC/TMD diagnoses in a patient population. J Dent. 2010;38(5):392–9.
8. Klatkiewicz T, Gawriolek K, Pobudek-Radzikowska M, Czajka- Jakubowska A. Ultrasonography in the diagnosis of temporomandibular disorders: A meta-analysis. Med Sci Monit. 2018;24:812–7. https://doi.org/10.12659/msm.908810
   [Google Scholar]
9. Sena MF, Mesquita KS, Santos FR, Silva FW, Serrano KV. Prevalence of temporomandibular dysfunction in children and adolescents. Rev Paul Pediatr. 2013;31(4):538-45. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0103-05822013000400018
   [Google Scholar]
10. Wadhwa S, Kapila S. TMJ disorders: Future innovations in diagnostics and therapeutics. J Dent Educ. 2008;72(8):930–47.
11. Zarb GA, Carlsson GE. Temporomandibular disorders: Osteoarthritis. J Orofac Pain. 1999;13(4):295–306.
12. Laskin DM, Greenfeld W, Gale E. The President’s conference on the examination, diagnosis, and management of temporomandibular disorders. Chicago: American Dental Association; 1983.
13. Tanaka E, Detamore MS, Mercuri LG. Degenerative disorders of the temporomandibular joint: Etiology, diagnosis, and treatment. J Dent Res. 2008;87(4):296–307. https://doi.org/10.1177/154405910808700406
    [Google Scholar]
14. Headache Classification Subcommittee of the International Headache Society. The international classification of headache disorders: 2nd edition. Cephalalgia. 2004;24(Suppl 1):9–160. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2982.2003.00824.x
    [Google Scholar]
15. Fujita T, Yamashita Y, Tsukiyama Y, Yamaguchi Y, Abe T, Ono Y, et al. A clinical classification system for temporomandibular disorders developed by the Japanese Society for the Temporomandibular Joint. J Oral Rehabil. 2003;30(4):374–80.
16. Dworkin SF, LeResche L. Research diagnostic criteria for temporomandibular disorders: Review, criteria, examinations and specifications, critique. J Craniomandib Disord. 1992;6(4):301–55.
17. Fillingim RB, Ohrbach R, Greenspan JD, Knott C, Diatchenko L, Dubner R, et al. Psychological factors associated with development of TMD: The OPPERA prospective cohort study. J Pain. 2013;14(12 suppl):T75–T90.
18. Larheim TA, Westesson PL. TMJ imaging. In: Laskin DM, Greene CS, Hylander WL, editors. Temporomandibular Disorders: An Evidence-Based Approach to Diagnosis and Treatment. Hanover Park: Quintessence; 2006. p. 149–79.
19. Honey OB, Scarfe WC, Hilgers MJ, Klueber K, Silveira AM, Haskell BS, et al. Accuracy of cone-beam computed tomography imaging of the temporomandibular joint: Comparisons with panoramic radiology and linear tomography. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2007;132(4):429–38.
20. Milam SB. TMJ osteoarthritis. In: Laskin DM, Greene CS, Hylander WL, editors. Temporomandibular Disorders: An Evidence-Based Approach to Diagnosis and Treatment. Hanover Park: Quintessence;
21. p. 105–24.
22. Mercuri LG. Osteoarthritis, osteoarthrosis, and idiopathic condylar resorption. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2008;20(2):169–
23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coms.2007.12.007
    [Google Scholar]
24. Stegenga B. Osteoarthritis of the temporomandibular joint organ and its relationship to disc displacement. J Orofac Pain. 2001;15(3):193–205.
25. American Society of Temporomandibular Joint Surgeons. White paper: Guidelines for diagnosis and management of disorders 74 Kundu et al. / Journal of Pierre Fauchard Academy 2025;39(3):67-75 involving the temporomandibular joint and related musculoskeletal structures. Cranio. 2003;21(1):68–76.
26. Kurita H, Uehara S, Sakai H, Kamata T, Kurashina K. Radiographic follow-up of diseased temporomandibular joints. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2005;100(4):427–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tripleo.2005.01.008
    [Google Scholar]
27. Okeson JP. Management of Temporomandibular Disorders and Occlusion. 6th ed. St Louis: CV Mosby; 2008. p. 258–431.
28. Hussain AM, Packota G, Major PW, Flores-Mir C. Role of different imaging modalities in assessment of temporomandibular joint erosions and osteophytes: A systematic review. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2008;37(2):63–71. https://doi.org/10.1259/dmfr/16932758
    [Google Scholar]
29. Rinchuse DJ, McMinn JT. Summary of evidence-based systematic reviews of temporomandibular disorders. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop. 2006;130(6):715–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajodo.2005.04.037
    [Google Scholar]
30. Tomas X, Pomes J, Berenguer J, Quinto L, Nicolau C, Mercader JM, et al. MR imaging of temporomandibular joint dysfunction: A pictorial review. Radiographics. 2006;26(3):765–
31. https://doi.org/10.1148/rg.263055091
    [Google Scholar]
32. Wright EF. Manual of temporomandibular disorders. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2014.
33. Kumar A, Brennan MT. Differential diagnosis of orofacial pain and temporomandibular disorder. Dent Clin North Am. 2013;57(3):419–
34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cden.2013.04.003
    [Google Scholar]
35. McNeely ML, Armijo Olivo S, Magee DJ. A systematic review of the effectiveness of physical therapy interventions for temporomandibular disorders. Phys Ther. 2006;86(5):710–25.
36. Al-Ani Z, Gray RJ, Davies SJ, Sloan P, Glenny AM. Stabilization splint therapy for temporomandibular pain dysfunction syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(1):CD002778. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002778.pub2
    [Google Scholar]
37. Michelotti A, de Wijer A, Steenks MH, Farella M. Home-exercise regimes for the management of non-specific temporomandibular disorders. J Oral Rehabil. 2005;32(11):779–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2842.2005.01513.x
    [Google Scholar]
38. Guarda-Nardini L, Manfredini D, Ferronato G. Arthrocentesis of the Temporomandibular Joint: Systematic Review and Clinical Implications of Research Findings. J Oral Facial Pain Headache. 2021;35(1):17-29. https://doi.org/10.11607/ofph.2606
    [Google Scholar]
39. Emshoff R, Rudisch A, Innerhofer K, Bösch R, Bertram S. Temporomandibular joint internal derangement type III: relationship to magnetic resonance imaging findings of internal derangement and osteoarthrosis. An intraindividual approach. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2001;30(5):390–6. https://doi.org/10.1054/ijom.2001.0068
    [Google Scholar]
40. Al-Moraissi EA, Wolford LM, Perez D, Laskin DM, Ellis E 3rd. Does orthognathic surgery cause or cure temporomandibular disorders? A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2017;75(9):1835–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joms.2017.03.029
    [Google Scholar]
41. Ohrbach R, Dworkin SF. The evolution of TMD diagnosis: Past, present, future. J Dent Res. 2016;95(10):1093–101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022034516653922
    [Google Scholar]
42. Bhargava D. Temporomandibular Joint Disorders: Principles and Current Practice. Springer Singapore, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2754-5
    [Google Scholar]
43. Lindahl L. ondylar fractures of the mandible. I. Classification and relation to age, occlusion, and concomitant injuries of teeth and teeth-supporting structures, and fractures of the mandibular body. Int J Oral Surg. 1977;6(1):12–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0300-
    [Google Scholar] 9785(77)80067-7.
44. Zhang C, Wu JY, Deng DL, He BY, Tao Y, Niu YM, et al. Efficacy of splint therapy for the management of temporomandibular disorders: A meta-analysis. Oncotarget. 2016;7(51):84043–
45. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.13059
    [Google Scholar]
46. Riley P, Glenny AM, Worthington HV, Jacobsen E, Robertson C, Durham J, et al. Oral splints for temporomandibular disorder or bruxism: A systematic review. Br Dent J. 2020;228(3):191–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41415-020-1250-2
    [Google Scholar]
47. Al-Moraissi EA, Farea R, Qasem KA, Al-Wadeai MS, Al-Sabahi ME, Al-Iryani GM. Effectiveness of occlusal splint therapy in the management of temporomandibular disorders: Network meta- analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2020;49(8):1042–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijom.2020.01.004
    [Google Scholar]
48. Alkhutari AS, Alyahya A, Conti PCR, Christidis N, Al-Moraissi EA. Is the therapeutic effect of occlusal stabilization appliances more than just placebo effect in the management of painful temporomandibular disorders? A network meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. J Prosthet Dent. 2021;126(1):24–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prosdent.2020.08.015
    [Google Scholar]
49. Seifeldin SA, Elhayes KA. Soft versus hard occlusal splint therapy in the management of temporomandibular disorders (TMDs). Saudi Dent J. 2015;27(4):208–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sdentj.2014.12.004
    [Google Scholar]
50. Incorvati C, Romeo A, Fabrizi A, Defila L, Vanti C, Gatto MRA, et al. Effectiveness of physical therapy in addition to occlusal splint in myogenic temporomandibular disorders: Protocol of a randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open. 2020;10(7):e038438. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-038438
    [Google Scholar]
51. vanderMeer HA, Calixtre LB, Engelbert RHH, Visscher CM, Nijhuis-van der Sanden MW, Speksnijder CM. Effects of physical therapy for temporomandibular disorders on headache pain intensity: A systematic review. Musculoskelet Sci Pract. 2020;50:102277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msksp.2020.102277
    [Google Scholar]
52. Kutuk SG, Ozkan Y, Kutuk M, Ozdas T. Comparison of the efficacies of dry needling and Botox methods in the treatment of myofascial pain syndrome affecting the temporomandibular joint. J Craniofac Surg. 2019;30(5):1556–9. https://doi.org/10.1097/SCS.0000000000005473
    [Google Scholar]
53. Connelly ST, Myung J, Gupta R, Tartaglia GM, Gizdulich A, Yang J, et al. Clinical outcomes of Botox injections for chronic temporomandibular disorders: Do we understand how Botox works on muscle, pain, and the brain? Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2017;46(3):322–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijom.2016.11.004
    [Google Scholar]
54. Kim YH, Bang JI, Son HJ, Kim Y, Kim JH, Bae H, et al. Protective effects of extracorporeal shockwave on rat chondrocytes and temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis; preclinical evaluation with in vivo 99mTc-HDP SPECT and ex vivo micro-CT. Osteoarthritis Cartilage. 2019;27(11):1692–701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2019.07.008
    [Google Scholar]
55. Schenk I, Vesper M, Nam VC. Initial results using extracorporeal low energy shockwave therapy (ESWT) in muscle reflex induced lock jaw. Mund Kiefer Gesichtschir. 2002;6(6):351–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10006-002-0365-8
    [Google Scholar]
56. Türp JC, Jokstad A, Motschall E, Schindler HJ, Windecker-Gétaz I, Ettlin DA. Is there a superiority of multimodal as opposed to simple therapy in patients with temporomandibular disorders? A qualitative systematic review of the literature. Clin Oral Implants Res. 2007;18 Suppl 3:138–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0501.2007.01480.x
    [Google Scholar]
57. Conti PC, Correa AS, Lauris JR, Stuginski-Barbosa J. Management of painful temporomandibular joint clicking with different intraoral devices and counseling: A controlled study. J Appl Oral Sci. 2015;23(5):529–35. https://doi.org/10.1590/1678-775720140438
    [Google Scholar]
58. de Resende C, de Oliveira Medeiros FGL, de Figueiredo Rego CR, Bispo ASL, Barbosa GAS, de Almeida EO. Short-term effectiveness of conservative therapies in pain, quality of life, and sleep in patients with temporomandibular disorders: A randomized clinical trial. Cranio. 2021;39(4):335–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/08869634.2019.1627068
    [Google Scholar]
59. de Barros Pascoal AL, de Freitas R, da Silva LFG, Oliveira A, Dos Santos Calderon P. Effectiveness of counseling on chronic pain management in patients with temporomandibular disorders. J Oral Facial Pain Headache. 2020;34(1):77–82. https://doi.org/10.11607/ofph.2163
    [Google Scholar]
60. Onishi M. Arthroscopy of the temporomandibular joint (author’s transl). Kokubyo Gakkai Zasshi. 1975;42(2):207–13. Kundu et al. / Journal of Pierre Fauchard Academy 2025;39(3):67-75 75
61. Murakami K, Ono T. Temporomandibular joint arthroscopy by inferolateral approach. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1986;15(4):410–
62. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0300-9785(86)80029-1
    [Google Scholar]
63. Sanders B. Arthroscopic surgery of the temporomandibular joint: Treatment of internal derangement with persistent closed lock. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1986;62(4):361–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-4220(86)90282-3
    [Google Scholar]
64. Sanders B, Buoncristiani R. Diagnostic and surgical arthroscopy of the temporomandibular joint: Clinical experience with 137 procedures over a 2-year period. J Craniomandib Disord Facial Oral Pain. 1987;1(3):202–13.
65. McCain JP. Arthroscopy of the human temporomandibular joint. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1988;46(8):648–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-2391(88)90107-3
    [Google Scholar]
66. Schiffman EL, Velly AM, Look JO, Hodges JS, Swift JQ, Decker KL, et al. Effects of four treatment strategies for temporomandibular joint closed lock. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2014;43(2):217–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijom.2013.07.744
    [Google Scholar]
67. Machoň V, Levorová J, Hirjak D, Beňo M, Drahoš M, Foltán R. Does arthroscopic lysis and lavage in subjects with Wilkes III internal derangement reduce pain? Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2021;25(4):463–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10006-020-
    [Google Scholar] 00935-7.
68. Nitzan DW, Dolwick MF, Martinez GA. Temporomandibular joint arthrocentesis: A simplified treatment for severe, limited mouth opening. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1991;49(11):1163–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/0278-2391(91)90409-f
    [Google Scholar]
69. Alpaslan C, Kahraman S, Guner B, Cula S. Does the use of soft or hard splints affect the short-term outcome of temporomandibular joint arthrocentesis? Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2008;37(5):424–7.
70. Bayramoglu Z, Tozoglu S. Comparison of single- and double- puncture arthrocentesis for the treatment of temporomandibular joint disorders: A six -month, prospective study. Cranio. 2021;39(2):151–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/08869634.2019.1603796
    [Google Scholar]
71. Li DTS, Wong NSM, Li SKY, McGrath CP, Leung YY. Timing of arthrocentesis in the management of temporomandibular disorders: An integrative review and meta-analysis. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2021;50(8):1078–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijom.2021.01.011
    [Google Scholar]
72. Hobeich JB, Salameh ZA, Ismail E, Sadig WM, Hokayem NE, Almas K. Arthroscopy versus arthrocentesis: A retrospective study of disc displacement management without reduction. Saudi Med J. 2007;28(10):1541–4.
73. Laskin DM. Arthroscopy versus arthrocentesis for treating internal derangements of the temporomandibular joint. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2018;30(3):325–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coms.2018.04.008
    [Google Scholar]
74. Monje-Gil F, Nitzan D, Gonzalez-Garcia R. Temporomandibular joint arthrocentesis: Review of the literature. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2012;17(4):e575–81. https://doi.org/10.4317/medoral.17670
    [Google Scholar]
75. Mercuri LG. Surgical management of TMJ disorders. In: Fonseca RJ, editor. Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. 3rd ed. St. Louis: Elsevier; 2017.
76. Sidebottom AJ. Current thinking in temporomandibular joint surgery. Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009;47(2):91–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjoms.2008.08.012
    [Google Scholar]
77. Miloro M, Ghali GE, Larsen PE, Waite PD. Peterson’s Principles of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. 3rd ed. Hamilton: BC Decker Inc;
78. Wolford LM. Management of the compromised TMJ patient. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2015;27(1):47–67.
79. Mercuri LG. TMJ total joint replacement–why, when, how. Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2006;18(2):339–57.
80. Dimitroulis G. The role of temporomandibular joint surgery in the management of disorders of the TMJ: A review of the literature. Aust Dent J. 2018;63(S1):S67–72.
81. He D, Yang C, Chen M, Zhang S, Zhao L. Total temporomandibular joint reconstruction with a custom-made prosthesis for osteoarthrosis. J Craniofac Surg. 2011;22(2):e30–3.
82. Plooij JM, Swennen GRJ, Rangel FA, et al. Evaluation of reproducibility and reliability of 3D soft tissue analysis using 3D stereophotogrammetry. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2009;38(3):267–
83. Movahed R, Mercuri LG. Surgical management of temporomandibular joint ankylosis: The evolution of treatment options. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2017;75(5):1010–5.